Political Geography

https://www.journals.elsevier.com/political-geography

Global Labor Migration: Past & Present

Global Labor Migration: Past and Present

Labor migration is a vast, global, and highly fluid phenomenon in the 21st century, capturing public attention and driving political controversy.  There are more labor migrants working in areas beyond their birth country or region than ever before.  Although scattered across the social ladder, migrant workers have always clustered, at least initially, in the bottom rungs of the working class.  Even as cross-border or inter-regional movement may beckon as a source of hope and new opportunity, the experience for the migrants and their families is often fraught with peril.  Labor migrants are vulnerable: they are exploited more easily by recruiters and employers, and are less likely to benefit from union representation.  They often face arrest or deportation when attempting to fight for their rights, and are bound to special documents that limit their ability to change jobs.  Moreover, as recent history reminds us, host-country fears directed towards labor migrants can also spark larger political movements characterized by nativist, racist, or even outright fascist tendencies.  Clearly, there is a need to combat fear with understanding and to reach for improved global regulations and standards to protect the rights and welfare of migrants alongside those of host country working people.

Because today global labor migration is shaping the lives of millions, and because it is receiving unprecedented attention by scholars, the newly-formed Global Labor Migration Network (GLMN) is currently planning for a Global Labor Migration Summit to take place in Amsterdam in summer 2019.  Involving scholars and activists from diverse parts of the globe and drawing on a wide variety of disciplines–including history, sociology, anthropology, ethnic studies, women and gender studies, public health, law and public policy–this project will bring international attention to one of the world’s most pressing issues, generate scholarly dialogue and new research agendas, and propose policies that can improve conditions for migrants.  The conference will also include a range of presentation formats: brief papers, roundtables, and open conversations.

Our keynote speakers for the conference have been announced! They are Donna Gabaccia of the University of Toronto and Bridget Anderson of the University of Bristol.

Writing & Running -- New Project

I just read an article on writing and its benefits.  This reminded me of all those times that I wanted to put my thoughts on paper; especially, thoughts and ideas that came to me while running.  All the ideas that come to me while running my long runs seem brilliant, creative, and unique.  By the time I come home, however, I have already moved on to another mode and ideas remain unwritten.

The article I read urges writers not to use long sentences and big words, to make clear statements, avoid the abstract, and practice writing in this way every day for six months.  This will be like training for the marathon I ran for the first time in my life in April 2017 in Vienna.  I had also started training for the marathon some 4 months before. 

Throughout my long runs that lasted for some 2, 3, and 4 hours as part of my training, I thought of writing a book entitled "The Memoirs of a First Time 68-Year-Old Marathon Runner." I even planned the chapters but April came and I ran the Vienna Marathon in 5.5 hours and the book was not written.

Practice

It seems that practice is the key to writing and also to running marathons.  I think the first time I read about the importance of practice in writing is when I read Haruki Murakami's memoir, in which he writes about his interest and participation in long-distance running.  He talks about the importance of discipline and practice in writing,emphasizing that creativity does not just come to him.  He writes about his strict schedule every day.  

There is something soothing about schedules; especially, when there is a goal ahead.  Schedules are an anti-dote for indecisiveness and they give a meaning to your day.

Role of Education in Resolving the Refugee Crisis in EU

Role of Education in Resolving Refugee Crisis in EU

"An investment in knowledge pays the best interest"^[1]

Abstract

The long-term integration of the refugees in Europe will be one of the central tasks facing the EU in the coming years. In this regard, the question is to what extent education can bring solutions to the integration of refugees in their host countries and enabling them to find employment. Within this framework, under what conditions can the EU resolve its refugees crisis.  This paper will explore whether education assumes a key role in equipping the refugees with the tools to succeed—either in their host country or, in the case of return, eventually back in their home country. In addition, this work will also explore whether education is also a key vehicle to transmit host country values and provide orientation on civic life. The main point of this study will be to show that education can go a long way in resolving the refugee crisis in the EU and I wish for this study to pave the path to a better understanding of the challenges faced by the refugees and how they can be helped.

Introduction

The arrival in Europe of more than 1 million refugees in 2015 unsettled the EU like no crisis before it.[2]  This sharp increase in refugee flow prompted EU member states to adopt two responses: One was to strengthen EU internal and external borders so as to prevent refugees making their way into Europe[3] and  the second  was to  try  and  prevent  refugees  and  migrants  making  the Mediterranean crossing by restricting the activities of people traffickers.  I will focus on the first response only.  As a growing number of EU countries moved to seal their borders and increasingly resorted to individual actions such as imposing border controls or building fences along their frontiers, big fault lines opened up across the European Union member states; in this way, endangering the European economic and social cohesion.

Under what conditions can the EU resolve the refugee crisis and curb the rising hostility toward the refugees is a question that has been on my mind for some time.  The motive for this work is to explore whether education, which is an investment in human capital, can pave the path to social peace and the integration of the immigrants on the one hand, and restore trust among the member states deeply divided over illegal immigration, on the other.  The question is – how should the EU respond to this challenge? To this question, I tentatively try to explain that the best approach for the EU is to invest in human capital and continue on its declared path.

My work is divided into three parts:  Part I introduces the reader to a brief overview of the refugee crisis and the measures the EU has taken to resolve this crisis.  Part II explains the importance of human capital and education with regard to both the refugees and the host population.  Finally, I proceed with a discussion and tentative proposal suggesting that the EU should focus on changing course with regard the policies on illegal immigration and invest in education.

I actually have only one purpose and one bias in this paper:  My purpose is to introduce the reader to the importance of education in changing the prevalent mind-set of viewing the refugees as a threat to the existing social structure and values and my bias is suggesting that a trial-and-error system is preferable to the present security approach.  To sum it up, I will try to show that education, not only assumes a key role in equipping both the refugees and the host population with a means to adjust to the new reality but it may even be the only means to ensure economic and human growth. 

Refugee Crisis

I had a number of reasons for undertaking this study.  It stroke me as noteworthy that the literature on the refugee crisis focused mainly on keeping refugees out and that the EU member states were mostly concerned with security; in particular, border security.  Efforts to contain the flow had unexpected and unwelcome consequences, creating hitherto unknown risks with the potential to cross borders, beyond the ability of a single country to manage the crisis.  Unforeseen consequences such as the potential of a disintegrating EU and rise of extreme right-wing politics came about.  Populist parties translated pervading public concerns over the refugees into "legitimate" enemies -- the enemy becoming "legitimate" as it is held responsible for public concerns[4] such as taking jobs away from the citizens and competition over work dragging down wages.   Furthermore, the framing of the refugee reality by the state actors as an act of benevolence and tolerance also shaped the public opinion in a way that led to the exposure of more racist and xenophobic attitudes vis-a-vis the refugees, marginalizing them even more.

All the amount of literature, research, and proof of the possibility of a positive contribution of the refugee flow fell on deaf ears.  Many economists and scholars note that in view of the low birthrates in the majority of EU countries, a large number of immigrants will be needed to preserve the potential for economic growth and ensure the long-term financing of European welfare systems; in this way, reversing the upward creep of the cost of state pensions.  Furthermore, even though in the very short run, the IMF estimates that refugees will add around 0.19% of Gross Domestic Product to public expenditure in the EU, later on, as the new arrivals integrate into the workforce, they are expected to boost annual output by 0.1% for the EU as a whole[5] .

European nations share the assumption that the way to address the refugee crisis is through border security and, therefore, have made mass investments in advanced border controls.  The EU focuses on investing in tools and means allowing for limiting/blocking access to Europe (border patrols), shifting the problem to someone else (sending money to other countries instead of taking in refugees permanently), or getting rid of the problem (by helping with deportations). 

Oxford University Professor Ruben Andersson shows, in his paper, that even though European attempts to secure or protect the borders have clearly failed, more of the same is being done in response to the escalating refugee crisis.  He further explains that focus on border security indicates a failure to see the "migration crisis" as a global crisis of the twenty-first century, which plays out not only at European borders but also in many of Europe’s neighboring countries and the developing world.  Focus on border security implies that the influx of refugees represents a temporary threat to Europe that can be eliminated; in other words, this is a short-term external 'risk'.[6]  "Most recommendations on how to manage the migrant crisis are security-based," he says, stressing that "the striving for ‘security’ tends to produce ‘insecurity’ ad infinitum," and suggesting that "a different systemic approach" is needed to replace the current security model." [7]  Nevertheless, over and over again the EU continues to adopt a tough stance toward illegal immigration with politicians insisting and recommending solutions to "manage"[8] the influx instead of admitting that the "The Refugee Crisis Is Here To Stay[9]," and that the security-approach is counterproductive, urgently in need of a shift.

Human Capital

It is widely assumed that education plays a vital role in successful integration.  The United Nations Human Development Report 2015: Work for Human Development, stresses the importance of education in human development, emphasizing that human development encompasses development in several dimensions of human well being, social development  one of its important dimensions. Education is also one of the most important means to improve personal endowments, build capabilities, overcome constraints and in the process, enlarge available set of opportunities and choices for a sustained improvement in well-being. The process of education and attainments thereof has an impact on all aspects of life. It is a critical invasive instrument for bringing about social, economic and political inclusion of people[10].

Only recently, however, the importance of education in the integration of refugees in Europe has become topical.[11]  The United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHRW) 2013 report entitled "A New Beginning: Refugee Integration in Europe," has only two references to education.  The first one is in the Table of Contents and the other that "there is little refugee-specific literature on education and integration in France, but some studies report on refugees and language."[12]   A joint paper released by the UN Refugee Agency and the Global Education Monitoring Report in 2016, however, is entitled "No more excuses: Provide education to all forcibly displaced people" calling "for countries and their humanitarian and development partners to urgently ensure that internally displaced, asylum seeking and refugee children and youth are included in national education plans."[13]  Obviously, the task of integrating large numbers of migrants and refugees in the EU challenges educational systems and concepts; but the report emphasizes the importance of the EU investing in its people for the long-term goal of shared and inclusive growth.   I would like to draw attention here that since 2000, the deportation of illegal immigrants cost at least 11.3 billion Euro to the 28 EU member states.[14]

Furthermore, there is some evidence that immigrants, who have obtained their education in host-country schooling, have higher odds of being employed than other non-educated immigrants. The same study shows that the benefits of host-country schooling are related to an increasing number of ties to … natives and to an overwhelming degree of increasing productivity."[15] One of the main challenges facing refugees trying to integrate in their host country is finding a suitable job.  If the EU recognizes this issue, it can invest in the education of the refugees; in this way, investing in refugee integration. [16]

In my opinion, in our increasingly interdependent world, importance should be attached not only to education but to future education.  I will now proceed to explain what I mean by future education for the purpose of this paper.  As the demands on education have become increasingly complex today, it becomes essential to determine the needs of the future, and evolve a system of education that equips youth to face the challenges that the 21st century will bring.[17] What is important to keep in mind in this approach is that the future for which we are educating the youth does not yet exist and to a large extent is unknown or unknowable.  For this reason, we may not be able to anticipate the precise nature of the future, but we can provide an education based on the understanding that it will be very different from the present.  

In the "Future Education Symposium[18]" held in 2015, it was noted that education as it is widely practiced around the world today, still largely functions according to an old system and fosters passive submission and obedience to authority at a time when the world needs individuals with the self-reliance, initiative, and problem-solving capabilities to fashion new solutions rather than merely regurgitate old ones.  Traditional education still emphasizes getting the 'right' answers to questions. It prepares youth for increasingly scarce salaried jobs rather than imparting the capacity to create new jobs through self-employment and entrepreneurship.  

Education is our best hope for a better future but education should be much more than learning and passing of information.  Various scholars have underscored the importance of a shift from overemphasis on information to creative thinking and spiritual values in education.[19] As stated in an article entitled "Overcoming the Educational Time Warp," the "knowledge and skills society needs in the 21st century are those that nurture the mental, emotional, and social development of individuals who know how to live and interact with other people, to lead and collaborate with others, to understand themselves and empathize with others.[20]"  For this reason, both the European youth and the refugees should be prepared to "confront uncertainty[21]".  The current refugee crisis in Europe shows that an issue can have its origins in one part of the world, and its effects seen in another distant part of the world.  Being concerned with a narrow cause, ignoring the larger picture and imagining that anything can be contained are ideas education has to work on to eliminate in youth.

In her book entitled Learning Futures – Education, technology and social change, Professor Keri Facer suggests that education should create the future instead of preparing the youth for or against a future we have already imagined.  Furthermore, education needs to create the conditions that will enable students to assume societal leadership and responsibility, confront uncertainty, nurture the capacity for democracy and debate, build solidarity, and participate in the dynamic creation of possibilities.[22]

Discussion/Conclusions        

"All life is problem solving" says Karl Popper in his book and recommends that the memorization of important material by repetition be replaced with a problem-oriented approach and that "error correction is the most important method in learning"[23].  In this regard, insistence on outmoded approaches under new conditions may generate intractable problems for the European Union.  One of the main tenets of Popper's philosophy is that progress is achieved "if and only if, we are prepared to learn from our mistakes: to recognize our errors, and to utilize them critically instead of persevering in them dogmatically."  Since this approach upholds the view that there can be no progress without mistakes and that each and every decision we make may give rise to undesirable consequences, admitting to an error is necessary in order for the EU to proceed and achieve progress.  In this regard, the EU has obviously failed to resolve the refugee crisis by focusing only on the border security approach.  I, therefore, suggest that the EU turn its attention from the security approach to the educational approach.  I also suggest that, along these lines, the EU identify the changes needed in the present education system and determine a course of action to meet the challenge of a graduate shift to "Learning to Live Together," which was determined as one of the four pillars of learning by UNESCO.[24]  In other words, education  as a tool  for  equipping  young  people,  our  future  generation  of  leaders,  with  the  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  to  tackle  prejudice  and  hostility  and  to  build  more  peaceful, tolerant and equitable societies.

The refugee crisis is unlikely to be a one-off phenomenon. Given the tensions in Europe’s wider neighborhood, refugee flows to the EU might well become the "new normal" over the coming years. While this can become an opportunity for aging Europe, it is time to prepare for the "new normal".  I suggest, therefore, that the EU take a risk and invest in the education of both the refugees and the local population to adjust to the "new normal."

Bibliography

Andersson, Ruben (2016) "Europe’s failed ‘fight’ against irregular migration: Ethnographic notes on a counterproductive industry," Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42(7):1055-1075.

Andersson, Ruben (2016), "Hardwiring the frontier? The politics of security technology in Europe’s 'fight against illegal migration'" Security Dialogue 47(1):22-39.

Andersson, Ruben (2016) "Why Europe’s border security approach has failed – and how to change it." Policy paper for the LSE/Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Berlin report on human security.

Frattini, Franco (2007) "The future of EU migration and integration policy." Public Lecture at London School of Economics, 23 February 2007. 

Harish, Janani (2015), "Report on Future Education Symposium"; The Wealth of Nations Revisited, CADMUS, New Perspectives on Major Global Issues.

Jacobs, Gary (2015) "Overcoming the Educational Time Warp: Anticipating a Different Future," CADMUS, New Perspectives on Major Global Issues, Vol. 2, Issue 5.

Kaldor, Mary (2016) From Hybrid Peace to Human Security: Rethinking EU Strategy towards Conflict," The Berlin Report of the Human Security Study Group, Presented to High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy Federica Mogherini.

Morrice, Linda (2007) " Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital," International Journal of Lifelong Education, Volume 26, Issue 2.

Popper, Karl (1966), The Open Society and Its Enemies: Volume 1: The Spell of Plato, Princeton University Press, Fifth Edition (revised), UK.

Popper, Karl (2004), Poverty of Historicism, (Routledge, Taylor & Francis, London & New York). 

Europe’s failed ‘fight’ against irregular migration: Ethnographic notes on a counterproductive industry (2016). Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42(7):1055-1075.

Rinaldi, David (2016).  "A New Start for Social Europe," Notre Europe, Jacques Delors Institute. http://www.institutdelors.eu/media/newstartsocialeurope-rinaldi-jdi-feb16.pdf?pdf=ok

Tubergen, van Frank & Agnieszka Kanas  (2009) "The Impact of Origin and Host Country Schooling on the Economic Performance of Immigrants" Social Forces, Volume 88, Number 2, pp. 893-915 (Article)

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^[1] Benjamin Franklin

[2] European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm

[3] UNHCR -- Hungary is building a fence (along its border with Serbia). Spain has done the same (in Ceuta and Melilla). Bulgaria followed suit (on the border with Turkey). More fencing is springing up in Calais. In Macedonia, which is not in the EU, they are deploying armored vehicles against migrants.

[4] Karen Umansky (2015) " The Quest for a "Legitimate" Enemy: Contemplations on Electoral Behavior of Populist Parties in Europe - Evidence from Austria, the Netherlands and the UK" Council for European Studies Conference."

[5] The Refugee Surge in Europe: Economic Challenges, January 2016.  www.imf.org/external/pubs/

[6] Ruben Andersson (2016) Europe's failed ‘fight ’ against irregular migration: ethnographic notes on a counterproductive industry, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42:7, 1055-1075, DOI:

10.1080/1369183X.2016.1139446

[7] Ruben Andersson, ‘Why Europe’s Border Security Approach Has Failed – and How to Replace It’, SiT/WP/08/16, February 2016, London.

[8] "Managing the Refugee Crisis" http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/publications/managing-refugee-crisis-state-play-presentation-european-council-15-october-2015_en

[9] Rena Dourou, " The Refugee Crisis Is Here To Stay. Now Is The Time To Deepen European Cooperation," The Huffington Post, 4 October 2016.

[10] Human Development Report 2015: Work for Human Development.  http://report.hdr.undp.org/

[11] Christian Bodewig, Education is the key to integrating refugees in Europe

[12] http://www.unhcr.org/protection/operations/52403d389/new-beginning-refugee-integration-europe.html

[13] Global Education Monitoring Report, http://en.unesco.org/gem-report/no-more-excuses#sthash.z2QSHwgd.dpbs

[14] http://migrantreport.org/the-money-trails/

[15] Agnieszka Kanas and Frank van Tubergen, "The Impact of Origin and Host Country Schooling on the Economic Performance of Immigrants," Social Forces, Volume 88, Number 2, December 2009, pp. 893-915.

[16] According to the 2016 European Semester: Country Specific Recommendation / Council Recommendation - Germany, the high influx of refugees experienced in the past year has a number of social and economic consequences for Germany. While in the short run, the inflow of refugees is set to increase public expenditure and to create additional domestic demand, thereby raising GDP, the medium-term effect on employment and growth hinges on refugees' successful labor market and social integration, including via educational support. This issue is high on the political agenda both at the EU and Member State level and will be monitored and analyzed closely, including in the 2017 country report.

[17] Janani Harish, Report on Future Education Symposium, 13 October 2015; The Wealth of Nations Revisited, CADMUS, New Perspectives on Major Global Issues.

[18] Dubrovnik, September 21-23, 2015, Inter-University Centre, Dubrovnik, Croatia

[19] "The World Academy of Art Science" http://www.worldacademy.org/conference/transformative-future-education

[20] Gary Jacobs (2015) "Overcoming the Educational Time Warp: Anticipating a Different Future," CADMUS, New Perspectives on Major Global Issues, Vol. 2, Issue 5 (October 1015)

[21] Keri Facer, "Learning Futures, Education, Technology, and Social Change," Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, London & New York, 2011, P. 80-88.

[22] Keri Facer

[23] Karl Popper, "All Life Is Problem Solving," Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, London & New York, 1999, P. 100.

[23] Keri Facer

[24] ://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002272/227208e.pdf

Liminality

Liminality 

A new and exciting word, which, in my opinion perfectly describes personal, social, and political transitions. 

In anthropology, liminality (from the Latin word līmen, meaning "a threshold") is the quality of ambiguity or disorientation that occurs in the middle stage of rituals, when participants no longer hold their pre-ritual status but have not yet begun the transition to the status they will hold when the ritual is complete. During a ritual's liminal stage, participants "stand at the threshold"between their previous way of structuring their identity, time, or community, and a new way, which the ritual establishes.

Old France New France

Old France New France

August 2016

We had a wonderful week visiting Provence tasting its delights, savoring views, and having a glimpse of this refined culture.  The house in itself was full of surprises, little corners, stairs leading to the roof, and a whole range of photos and albums of the owners. The kitchen was a world of its own, with a variety of olive oils, salts, and dishes.  The best part of the day for me was the mornings -- the extended breakfast pleasure and lively conversation after my morning run.  Initially, I only ran from one village to another, sometimes having a 'noisette' with locals before running back to the house.  Almost all my questions for directions back to the house from where I was ended with "courage madame" from the locals.  This always made me feel a little triumphant returning home safe and sound after battling the outside world!!! 

I did have the impression of a déjà-vu in Provence, it almost seemed as though I was in a movie.  Some things even looked familiar.  It was the France and the French I was brought up to admire and appreciate -- the courtesy, style, and impeccable gout.  

And then we went to Marseille!!! And that is when I realized that Provence was actually the Old France and that Marseille is the New France.  It was vibrant, dynamic, and volatile!  I sort of felt at home as it was more like the Middle East I know.  Everything looked like the Old France -- the architecture, the Cathedral, and the Old City -- but the people were of all races, colors, and dresses.  It was exciting and alive!  Could it be that I felt more at home?  Perhaps... It was a sort of Paris in the Mideast!

I saw couples -- white and black hands walking hand-in-hand; I saw Burkini-clad women walking hand-in-hand with modern-clad young men; I saw diversity, flash of colors, and heterogeneity.  And, for some reason that gave me hope for the future. 

It may not be the refined France and French we know but it seems to be the future and from the way we were treated with patience, kindness and an extremely helpful attitude from the young locals all the way on the "dangerous" road to the St Charles Gare, I would say that perhaps Marseille offers a new perspective on how a multicultural city can exist and even thrive. 

I am including a link to the "Je Suis Chez Moi" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsOqEhMumaw song we heard countless times that tells it all.

Tina

Etienne BALIBAR

Introduction

These new reflections on the issue of "transnational citizenship" and its aporias, which I have the possibility to submit for discussion owing to the generous invitation of the Institute on Globalization and the Human Condition at McMaster University, will be presented from a European point of view, as I have done in previous essays on the same subject. But I will try to do so also in the perspective of a comparison, or better said, a confrontation, with North America, of which you are part, and where I have been working now regularly for years, albeit across the border.

I do not believe in the possibility of speaking about "the global" from a point of view itself "global" — that is, from nowhere or everywhere. But I believe in the (relative) possibility of dis-locating one's point of view, one's place of enunciation, and above all of exposing oneself to the dis-location that comes from others.

What I am offering here has no pretension to present a full doctrine of "transnational citizenship," no more than it was the case before, but I will try to clarify certain issues and to take into account some discussions that have developed over the last few years (in particular after the publication of important essays by our Italian colleagues Alessandro Dal Lago and Sandro Mezzadra),which themselves were prompted by rapid transformations of the status of borders, the policies of "territorial defence" against illegal migrants, and the rise of "populist" ideologies and parties throughout Europe.

All this, indeed, comes in the wake of the growing polarization of world politics after 9/11, and therefore is not unrelated to similar tendencies observable internationally.
My contention is that we are observing a growing confusion of the historical and political categories of the "stranger" and the "enemy," which in a sense only brings to the fore a tendency inherent in the structure of the nation-state, and periodically activated by situations of cold or hot war, but also "normally" limited in its expression by laws and customs, which now seems to become irresistible —as was the case in some tragic moments of the past century. But the scale is not the same, and the resulting political alternatives cannot be the same either.

If the name "auto-immunity crisis," which has been proposed by the philosopher Jacques Derrida in some of his last essays (2005), is a good guiding thread, it would not be only a political question of choosing between fascism and democracy (and repelling one in the name and the perspective of the restoration of the other in its full comprehension), but more radically a meta-political or "constitutional" question of accepting a regression of the universalistic notion of citizenship, or inventing, against the current, a new historical
advance of that notion.

I feel indeed that we are only in the preliminary inquiries for achieving such a progress.